# Copyright (C) 2008, The Perl Foundation.
# $Id: /mirror/trunk/languages/squaak/doc/tutorial_episode_6.pod 28207 2008-06-09T17:01:17.357050Z kjs  $

=head1 Episode 6: Scope and Subroutines

In Episode 5, we looked at variable declarations and implementing scope.
We covered a lot of information then, but did not tell the full story, in order
to keep that post short. In this episode we'll address the missing parts,
which will also result in implementing subroutines.

=head2 Variables

In the previous episode, we entered local variables into the current block's
symbol table. As we've seen earlier, using the do-block statement, scopes may
nest. Consider this example:

 do
     var x = 42
     do
         print(x)
     end
 end

In this example, the print statement should print 42, even though x was not
declared in the scope where it is referenced. How does the compiler know it's
still a local variable? That's simple: it should look in all scopes, starting
at the innermost scope. Only when the variable is found in any scope, should
its scope be set to "lexical", so that the right instructions are being
generated.

The solution I came up with is shown below. Please note that I'm not 100% sure
if this is the "best" solution, but my personal understanding of the PAST
compiler is limited. So, while this solution works, I may teach you the wrong
"habit". Please be aware of this.

 method identifier($/) {
     our @?BLOCK;
     my $name  := ~$<ident>;
     my $scope := 'package'; # default value
     # go through all scopes and check if the symbol
     # is registered as a local. If so, set scope to
     # local.
     for @?BLOCK {
         if $_.symbol($name) {
             $scope := 'lexical';
         }
     }

     make PAST::Var.new( :name($name),
                         :scope($scope),
                         :viviself('Undef'),
                         :node($/) );
 }

=head2 Viviself

You might have noticed the viviself attribute before. This attribute will
result in extra instructions that will initialize the variable if it doesn't
exist. As you know, global variables spring into life automatically when
they're used. Earlier we mentioned that uninitialized variables have a default
value of "Undef": the viviself attribute does this.
For local variables, we use this mechanism to set the (optional) initialization
value. When the identifier is a parameter, the parameter will be initialized
automatically if it doesn't receive a value when the subroutine it belongs to
is invoked. Effectively this means that all parameters in Squaak are optional!

=head2 Subroutines

We already mentioned subroutines before, and introduced the C<PAST::Block> node
type. We also briefly mentioned the blocktype attribute that can be set on a
C<PAST::Block> node, which indicates whether the block is to be executed
immediately (for instance, a do-block or if statement) or it represents a
declaration (for instance, subroutines). Let us now look at the grammar rule
for subroutine definitions:

 rule sub_definition {
     'sub' <identifier> <parameters>
     <statement>*
     'end'
     {*}
 }

 rule parameters {
     '(' [<identifier> [',' <identifier>]* ]? ')'
     {*}
 }

This is rather straightforward, and the action methods for these rules are
quite simple, as you will see. First, however, let's have a look at the rule
for sub definitions. Why is the sub body defined as <statement>* and not as a
<block>? Surely, a subroutine defines a new scope, which was already covered
by <block> Well, you're right in that. However, as we will see, by the time
that a new C<PAST::Block> node would be created, we are too late! The
parameters would already have been parsed, and not entered into the block's
symbol table. That's a problem, because parameters are most likely to be used
in the subroutine's body, and as they are not registered as local variables
(which they are), any usage of parameters would not be compiled down to the
right instructions to fetch any parameters.

So, how do we solve this in an efficient way?

The solution is simple. The only place where parameters live, is in the
subroutine's body, represented by a PAST::Block node. Why don't we create the
C<PAST::Block> node in the action method for the parameters rule. By doing so,
the block is already in place and the parameters are registered as local
symbols right in time. Let's look at the action methods.

 method parameters($/) {
     our $?BLOCK;
     our @?BLOCK;
     my $past := PAST::Block.new( :blocktype('declaration'), :node($/) );

     # now add all parameters to this block
     for $<identifier> {
         my $param := $( $_ );
         $param.scope('parameter');
         $past.push($param);

         # register the parameter as a local symbol
         $past.symbol($param.name(), :scope('lexical'));
     }

     # now put the block into place on the scope stack
     $?BLOCK := $past;
     @?BLOCK.unshift($past);

     make $past;
 }

 method sub_definition($/) {
     our $?BLOCK;
     our @?BLOCK;
     my $past := $( $<parameters> );
     my $name := $( $<identifier> );

     # set the sub's name
     $past.name( $name.name() );

     # add all statements to the sub's body
     for $<statement> {
         $past.push( $( $_ ) );
     }

     # and remove the block from the scope stack and restore the current block
     @?BLOCK.shift();
     $?BLOCK := @?BLOCK[0];
     make $past;
 }

First, let's check out the parse action for parameters. First, a new
C<PAST::Block> node is created. Then, we iterate over the list of identifiers
(which may be empty), each representing a parameter. After retrieving the
result object for a parameter (which is just an identifier), we set its scope
to "parameter", and we add it to the block object. After that, we register the
parameter as a symbol in the block object, specifying the scope as "lexical".
Parameters are just a special kind of local variables, and there's no
difference in a parameter and a declared local variable in a subroutine, except
that a parameter will usually be initialized with a value that is passed when
the subroutine is invoked.
After handling the parameters, we set the current block (referred to by our
package variable C<$?BLOCK>) to C<PAST::Block> node we just created, and push it
on the scope stack (referred to by our package variable C<@?BLOCK>).

After the whole subroutine definition is parsed, the action method
C<sub_definition> is invoked. This will retrieve the result object for
parameters, which is the C<PAST::Block> node that will represent the sub.
After retrieving the result object for the sub's name, we set the name on the
block node, and add all statements to the block. After this, we pop off this
block node of the scope stack (C<@?BLOCK>), and restore the current block
(C<$?BLOCK>).

Pretty easy, huh?

=head2 Subroutine invocation

Once you defined a subroutine, you'll want to invoke it. In the exercises of
Episode 5, we already gave some tips on how to create the PAST nodes for a
subroutine invocation. In this section, we'll give a complete description.
First we'll introduce the grammar rules.

 rule sub_call {
     <primary> <arguments>
     {*}
 }

Not only allows this to invoke subroutines by their name, you can also store
the subroutines in an array or hash field, and invoke them from there. Let's
take a look at the action method, which is really quite straightforward.

 method sub_call($/) {
     my $invocant := $( $<primary> );
     my $past     := $( $<arguments> );
     $past.unshift($invocant);
     make $past;
 }

 method arguments($/) {
     my $past := PAST::Op.new( :pasttype('call'), :node($/) );
     for $<expression> {
         $past.push( $( $_ ) );
     }
     make $past;
 }

The result object of the sub_call method should be a C<PAST::Op> node (of type
C<call>), which contains a number of child nodes: the first one is the invocant
object, and all remaining children are the arguments to that sub call.

In order to "move" the result objects of the arguments to the sub_call method,
we create the C<PAST::Op> node in the method arguments, which is then retrieved
by sub_call. In sub_call, the invocant object is set as the first child
(using unshift). This is all too easy, isn't it? :-)

=head2 What's Next?

In this episode we finished the implementation of scope in Squaak, and
implemented subroutines. Our language is coming along nicely! In the next
episode, we'll explore how to implement operators and an operator precedence
table for efficient expression parsing.

In the mean time, should you have any problems or questions, don't hesitate to
leave a comment!

=head2 Exercises

=over 4

=item *

By now you should have a good idea on the implementation of scope in Squaak.
We haven't implemented the for-statement yet, as it needs proper scope handling
to implement. Implement this. Check out episode 3 for the BNF rules that define
the syntax of the for-statement. When implementing it, you will run into the
same issue as we did when implementing subroutines and parameters. Use the same
trick for the implementation of the for-statement.

=back

=head2 Solution to the exercise

Without further ado, the solution to the exercise in Episode 6:

By now you should have a good idea on the implementation of scope in Squaak.
We haven't implemented the for-statement yet, as it needs proper scope handling
to implement. Implement this. Check out Episode 3 for the BNF rules that define
the syntax of the for-statement. When implementing it, you will run into the
same issue as we did when implementing subroutines and parameters. Use the
same trick for the implementation of the for-statement.

First, let us look at the BNF of the for-statement:

    for-statement ::= 'for' for-init ',' expression [step]
                      'do'
                      block
                      'end'

    step          ::= ',' expression

    for-init      ::= 'var' identifier '=' expression

It's pretty easy to convert this to Perl 6 rules:

    rule for_statement {
        'for' <for_init> ',' <expression> <step>?
        'do' <statement>* 'end'
        {*}
    }

    rule step {
        ',' <expression>
        {*}
    }

    rule for_init {
        'var' <identifier> '=' <expression>
        {*}
    }

Pretty easy huh? Let's take a look at the semantics. A for-loop is just
another way to write a while loop, but much easier in certain cases. This:

    for var <ident> = <expr1>, <expr2>, <expr3> do
       <statement>*
    end

corresponds to:

    do
      var <ident> = <expr1>
      while <ident> <= <expr2> do
         <statement>*
         <ident> = <ident> + <expr3>
      end
    end

If <expr3> is absent, it defaults to the value C<1>. Note that the step
expression (expr3) should be positive; the loop condition contains a "<="
operator. When you specify a negative step expression, the loop variable
will only decrease in value, which will never make the loop condition false
(unless it overflows, but that's a different issue; this might even raise an
exception in Parrot; this I do not know). Allowing negative step expressions
introduces more complexity, which I felt was not worth the trouble for this
tutorial language.

Note that the loop variable <ident> is local to the for loop; this is expressed
in the equivalent while loop by the surrounding do/end pair: a new do/end pair
defines a new (nested) scope; after the C<end> keyword, the loop variable is no
longer visible.

Let's implement the action method for the for-statement. As was mentioned in
the exercise description, we're dealing with the same situation as with
subroutine parameters. In this case, we're dealing with the loop variable,
which is local to the for-statement. Let's check out the rule for for_init:

    method for_init($/) {
        our $?BLOCK;
        our @?BLOCK;

        ## create a new scope here, so that we can
        ## add the loop variable
        ## to this block here, which is convenient.
        $?BLOCK := PAST::Block.new( :blocktype('immediate'),
                                    :node($/) );
        @?BLOCK.unshift($?BLOCK);

        my $iter := $( $<identifier> );
        ## set a flag that this identifier is being declared
        $iter.isdecl(1);
        $iter.scope('lexical');
        ## the identifier is initialized with this expression
        $iter.viviself( $( $<expression> ) );

        ## enter the loop variable into the symbol table.
        $?BLOCK.symbol($iter.name(), :scope('lexical'));

        make $iter;
    }

So, just as we created a new C<PAST::Block> for the subroutine in the action
method for parameters, we create a new C<PAST::Block> for the for-statement in
the action method that defines the loop variable. (Guess why we made for-init
a subrule, and didn't put in "C<var> <ident&gt = <expression>" in the rule of
for-statement). This block is the place to live for the loop variable. The
loop variable is declared, initialized using the viviself attribute, and
entered into the new block's symbol table. Note that after creating the new
C<PAST::Block> object, we put it onto the stack scope.

Now, the action method for the for statement is quite long, so I'll just
embed my comments, which makes reading it easier.

    method for_statement($/) {
        our $?BLOCK;
        our @?BLOCK;

First, get the result object of the for statement initialization rule; this
is the C<PAST::Var> object, representing the declaration and initialization
of the loop variable.

        my $init := $( $<for_init> );

Then, create a new node for the loop variable. Yes, another one (besides the
one that is currently contained in the C<PAST::Block>). This one is used when
the loop variable is updated at the end of the code block (each iteration).
The difference with the other one, is that it doesn't have the C<isdecl> flag,
and it doesn't have a C<viviself> clause, which would result in extra
instructions checking whether the variable is null (and we know it's not,
because we initialize the loop variable).

        ## cache the name of the loop variable
        my $itername := $init.name();
        my $iter := PAST::Var.new( :name($itername),
                               :scope('lexical'),
                               :node($/) );

Now, retrieve the C<PAST::Block> node from the scope stack, and push all
statement PAST nodes onto it.

        ## the body of the loop consists of the statements written by the user and
        ## the increment instruction of the loop iterator.

        my $body := @?BLOCK.shift();
        $?BLOCK  := @?BLOCK[0];
        for $<statement> {
            $body.push($($_));
        }

If there was a step, we use that value; otherwise, we use assume a default
step size of C<1>. Negative step sizes won't work, but if you Feel Lucky, you
could go ahead and try. It's not that hard, it's just a lot of work, and
I'm too lazy for that now.... ehm, I mean, I leave it as the proverbial
exercise to the reader.

        my $step;
        if $<step> {
            my $stepsize := $( $<step>[0] );
            $step := PAST::Op.new( $iter, $stepsize, :pirop('add'), :node($/) );
        }
        else { ## default is increment by 1
            $step := PAST::Op.new( $iter, :pirop('inc'), :node($/) );
        }

The incrementing of the loop variable is part of the loop body, so add the
incrementing statement to $body.

        $body.push($step);

The loop condition uses the "<=" operator, and compares the loop variable
with the maximum value that was specified.

        ## while loop iterator <= end-expression
        my $cond := PAST::Op.new( $iter,
                                  $( $<expression> ),
                                  :name('infix:<=') );

Now we have the PAST for the loop condition and the loop body, so now create
a PAST to represent the (while) loop.

        my $loop := PAST::Op.new( $cond, $body, :pasttype('while'), :node($/) );

Finally, the initialization of the loop variable should go before the loop
itself, so create a C<PAST::Stmts> node to do this:

        make PAST::Stmts.new( $init, $loop, :node($/) );
    }


Wow, we've done it! This was a good example of how to implement a
non-trivial statement type using PAST.

=cut
